Leonard Meyer proposed which theory about emotions in music?

• A. Expectancy theory: emotions arise when musical expectations are fulfilled or violated
• B. Emotion is determined by tempo alone
• C. Emotions are random and not related to expectations
• D. Music expresses feelings directly without cognitive processing

Answer: (A)

Emotions in music, according to this idea, come from how listeners form predictions about what will come next as the music unfolds. Leonard Meyer argued that our sense of affect grows from expectancy: we anticipate tonal progressions, rhythms, and melodic directions based on learned patterns. When the music meets those expectations, we feel a sense of closure or ease; when it violates them—through surprising chords, unexpected rhythmic shifts, or unusual modulations—we experience tension or surprise that can be felt as emotion. This view emphasizes cognitive processing: emotional responses arise from predicting and interpreting musical structure, not from tempo alone or from feelings being expressed without processing. So, emotions arise when musical expectations are fulfilled or violated.