Referentialism vs Meyer's expectancy theory: which statement correctly contrasts them?

• A. Referentialism attributes emotion to external associations; Meyer's theory attributes emotion to expectancy fulfillment or violation
• B. Referentialism emphasizes brain regions; Meyer's theory emphasizes cultural conditioning
• C. Both theories assert emotion arises from structural features alone
• D. Both theories reject any role of emotion in music

Answer: (A)

The main idea here is how emotion in response to music is generated: through external associations or through internal prediction and its outcomes. Referentialism holds that emotional responses come from links listeners make between the music and things outside the music—stories, scenes, cultural symbols, or personal memories. In this view, the feeling is produced by the meaning the music evokes beyond its own sounds.

Meyer’s expectancy theory, on the other hand, says emotion arises from how music creates and then violates or fulfills expectations. Listeners form predictions about what will come next based on learned musical structure, and the emotional experience tracks whether those predictions are met or surprised. Satisfaction often accompanies fulfilled expectations, while tension or excitement arises from expectancy violation.

So the option that best contrasts them says: referentialism attributes emotion to external associations, whereas Meyer’s theory attributes emotion to expectancy fulfillment or violation. The other statements don’t capture this key distinction—for example, focusing on brain regions or cultural conditioning, or claiming emotion comes from structure alone or not at all, misrepresent the core difference.